psychological harm

Washington, July 30 : While vaccines to protect against sexually transmitted diseases including HIV and herpes are under-development, a University of Missouri researcher has found that college students who believe they are invincible are unlikely to get such vaccines. On the other hand, students who feel invulnerable to psychological harm are more likely to get the vaccine.

"Previous researchers have used invulnerability measures to predict health-endangering behaviors in students, but this study is unique in that it considers the role of invulnerability in students'' health-protective or preventative behaviours," said Russell Ravert, assistant professor in the MU College of Human Environmental Sciences.

For the study, Ravert measured two invulnerability factors- danger and psychological.

He observed that students with increased danger invulnerability- those who viewed themselves as physically invincible- were more likely to decline the vaccine.

HIV and Heart Disease

HIV and Heart Disease—As you get older, you are at a greater risk for other health problems like heart disease. Read this brochure to learn about reducing your risk of heart disease.
Download a PDF in English (981 KB)

Youth HIV/AIDS education

At two years old, Ben Banks had to overcome cancer. He soon found out that the blood that had saved his life from is cancer, gave him HIV. Ben is now a 24 year cancer and HIV survivor. He graduated from James Madison University and continues to go to college and share his story with audiences around the country. He is now working for the Make-A-Wish Foundation, is married and is actively involved with HIV vaccine research.
Youth HIV/AIDS educator Bob Bowers has been doing youth HIV/AIDS education and prevention for over 10 years

Psychological distress

Washington, Mar 4: A new study, conducted by researchers at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom, has found that psychological distress, not depression, may increase the risk of stroke.

Studies in past have revealed that stroke often leads to depression, but their wasn’t any clear evidence as to whether depression could lead to stroke.

“Stroke is among the leading causes of long-term disability and death worldwide,” said study author Paul Surtees, PhD, of the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom.

“Understanding the mechanisms by which overall emotional health may increase stroke risk may inform stroke prevention and help identify those at increased stroke risk,” he added.

For the study, the researchers examined 20,627 people who had never suffered a stroke for an average of 8.5 years.

As part of the study, participants answered questions concerning their psychological distress, based on a scale measuring well-being, and their history of major depressive disorder.

During the study period, 595 participants suffered a stroke and 28 percent of these strokes were fatal.

The results showed that psychological distress was linked to an increased risk of stroke and that the risk of stroke increased the more distress the participants reported.

Considering factors such as cigarette smoking, systolic blood pressure, overall blood cholesterol, obesity, previous heart attack, diabetes, social class, education, high blood pressure treatment, family history of stroke and recent antidepressant medication use, the researchers found that the link remained the same.

The study also showed that for every one standard deviation lower that participants scored on the mental well-being scale, their risk of stroke increased by 11 percent. The relationship was even more pronounced for those with fatal strokes.

It was also found that the risk of stroke was not increased for people who had experienced an episode of major depression in the past year or for people who had experienced major depression at any point in their lifetime.

The study is published in the March 4, 2008,

Psychological risk factors for HIV

How people think and feel influences how they behave. Psychological factors such as risk perception, personality characteristics, and psychological states influence the extent to which people engage in high- or low-risk behaviors.

Beliefs and risk perception

People who think AIDS is a relatively minor or remote problem are less likely to take steps to reduce their risks. In addition, people who think that they personally are not at risk for HIV infection are more likely to engage in risky behaviors.

Personality characteristics

Other psychological risk factors, including personality characteristics such as low self-esteem, narcissism (preoccupation with the self), antisocial personality, impulsivity (the tendency to do things suddenly, without thinking about the consequences of the action), tendency to take risks, and tendency to seek out new sensations, are related to sexual risk-taking behavior (Kalichman, 1998). Coping responses also influence risk behavior. To escape from or relieve stress, some people engage in high-risk sexual behaviors or use drugs and alcohol, just as others may smoke cigarettes or overeat (Kalichman, 1998; Zierler & Krieger, 2000).

Combining TB treatment

Joint call for action follows Mandela's plea at Bangkok International AIDS Conference to strengthen fight against tuberculosis

21 SEPTEMBER 2004 | ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA -- Expanding access to tuberculosis treatment, combined with introducing HIV testing and anti-retroviral (ARV) delivery into TB programmes, could save the lives of as many as 500 000 Africans living with HIV every year and is one of the most cost-effective ways to ensure the survival of HIV-positive people, according to international health experts meeting this week in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Joint TB and HIV interventions are among the best ways to accelerate access to ARVs and to help reach the “3 by 5” target of three million people on HIV treatment by the end of 2005, according to WHO and UNAIDS. “If we jointly tackle TB and HIV, we can be much more effective in controlling both diseases,” said Dr Peter Piot, UNAIDS Executive Director.

Of the estimated 25 million Africans now living with HIV, about eight million also harbour the bacillus that causes TB. Each year, 5-10% of these eight million co-infected people develop active TB and up to half, or four million, will develop the disease at some point in their lives.

Without TB treatment, HIV infected people with TB typically die within months. Yet national TB programmes in Africa are currently treating fewer than half of HIV-positive people with active TB - despite the fact that they respond just as well to TB treatment as HIV-negative people, and the cost of TB drugs is as low as US$ 10 per patient. But few TB patients are currently offered an HIV test, and only a handful receive ARVs. Providing ARVs to HIV infected TB patients is now a WHO 'standard of care' policy.

“As we scale up efforts to increase access to ARVs in Africa we must simultaneously help people living with HIV survive their bouts episodes with tuberculosis,” said Jack Chow, Assistant Director-General of the World Health Organization. “This is one of the most effective ways we can help save lives in Africa.”

The lack of attention to the risk TB poses for people living with HIV was highlighted by Nelson Mandela at the recent XV International AIDS Conference in Bangkok in July. "TB is too often a death sentence for people with AIDS," Mandela said. "Today we are calling on the world to recognize that we can't fight AIDS unless we do much more to fight TB as well."

At the Addis Ababa meeting, the TB/HIV Working Group of the global Stop TB Partnership - comprising experts from WHO, UNAIDS, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USAID and other international bodies, as well as Zackie Achmat and other leading African AIDS activists - called for rapid uptake by African governments of collaborative interventions to tackle the two diseases simultaneously.

In addition to strengthening DOTS* programmes in Africa to diagnose and treat TB, these interventions include regularly offering counselling and testing for HIV into TB control programmes; screening for TB in HIV/AIDS programmes; and providing preventive therapy for co-infected people to prevent the development of TB disease. Managers of several DOTS programmes in Africa have already committed themselves to support the delivery of ARVs to TB patients who are HIV-positive.

The Working Group also pledged to provide technical assistance to any country wishing to submit a TB/HIV proposal for the next round of the Global Fund Against AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (GFATM).

“We cannot talk seriously about fighting AIDS while ignoring TB,” said Richard Feachem, Executive Director of the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, TB and Malaria. “In Africa, TB and HIV collaborate to kill." Feachem said the Global Fund will modify its proposal guidelines to request that AIDS proposals also include a strategy to address TB, and likewise TB proposals also include HIV/AIDS.

In some regions of Africa, 75% of TB patients are infected by HIV. Yet in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Uganda and Zimbabwe, fewer than 40% of people living with both TB and HIV are receiving proper TB treatment. In Nigeria, less than 10% of these cases are receiving proper TB treatment.

Herpes zoster

DESCRIPTION

Herpes zoster is the medical name for shingles. Shingles is an infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus, a member of the herpes family and the same virus that causes chicken pox. The characteristic symptom is a rash of painful blisters. Shingles can appear anywhere on the body.

SHINGLES & CHICKENPOX

Shingles is caused by reactivation in the adult years of the chicken pox virus that occurred during childhood. The virus can be reactivated when the body's immunity to the virus breaks down. This may happen due to normal aging, or the body's immune system may become weakened due to stress from illness, physical or emotional stress, fatigue, poor nutrition, certain medications, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or other factors.

Once reactivated, the virus travels along nerve fibers, usually settling in fairly isolated areas of the skin on one side of the body, but it can appear anywhere on the body. The infected area of the body usually has severe pain, itching, redness, numbness, and the development of a rash. The rash on the skin develops into small, fluid-filled blisters called vesicles. Within a few days of their appearance on the skin, the vesicles break open and form scabs. In severe cases, the rash can leave permanent scars, long standing pain, numbness, and skin discoloration.

THE EYES AND THE HERPES ZOSTER VIRUS

The eyes are sometimes affected by herpes zoster. This is due to the fact that the eyes are connected to nerves that may be infected with the herpes zoster virus.

If the infection occurs on the forehead near the eyes or on the tip of the nose, the eyes are likely to become involved. The usual shingles rash can spread from an involved area of the forehead or cheek to the upper or lower eyelids. Shingles may cause redness of the conjunctiva (the mucous membrane covering the white of the eye). It can also cause small scratches or scarring of the cornea. The scratches on the cornea may increase the risk of bacterial infection in the eye and damage to the cornea can occur. Shingles may also cause inflammation inside the eye, known as iritis or uveitis. It can also affect the optic nerve or the retina.

Herpes zoster infections of the eye can lead to redness, swelling, pain, sensitivity to light, and blurred vision. Severe or repeated episodes of herpes zoster infection are associated with other eye conditions, including glaucoma, scarring inside the eye, and cataract formation.

MoonDragon's Health

BASIC INFORMATION


"For Informational Use Only"
For more detailed information contact your health care provider
about options that may be available for your specific situation.

From 1816 to present

there were approximately 40 million to 50 million people died of Cholera. This disease is

sometimes known as Asiatic or Epidemic Cholera, an infectious gastroenteritis. Transmission to humans occurs

through eating food or drinking water contaminated with Vibrio cholerae from other cholera patients.

One infectious disease that has caught the attention of the world with so much controversy is AIDS with an

estimated 25,250,000 people died worldwide from 1981 to 2007 only. It is a disease of the human

immune system caused by the so-called human immunodeficiency virus or HIV. AIDS is now a pandemic with

33.2 million people contaminated with the disease worldwide.

Stage IV

In stage IV AIDS-related lymphoma, the cancer either:

* is found throughout one or more organs other than the lymph nodes and may be in lymph nodes near those organs; or
* is found in one organ other than the lymph nodes and has spread to lymph nodes far away from that organ.

Patients who are infected with the Epstein-Barr virus or whose AIDS-related lymphoma affects the bone marrow have an increased risk of the cancer spreading to the central nervous system (CNS).

For treatment, AIDS-related lymphomas are grouped based on where they started in the body, as follows:

Peripheral/systemic lymphoma

Lymphoma that starts in lymph nodes or other organs of the lymph system is called peripheral/systemic lymphoma. The lymphoma may spread throughout the body, including to the brain or bone marrow.

Primary CNS lymphoma

Primary CNS lymphoma starts in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). Lymphoma that starts somewhere else in the body and spreads to the central nervous system is not primary CNS lymphoma.
Treatment Option Overview

There are different types of treatment for patients with AIDS-related lymphoma.

Different types of treatment are available for patients with AIDS-relatedlymphoma. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment. Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.

Treatment of AIDS-related lymphoma combines treatment of the lymphoma with treatment for AIDS.

Patients with AIDS have weakened immune systems and treatment can cause further damage. For this reason, patients who have AIDS-related lymphoma are usually treated with lower doses of drugs than lymphoma patients who do not have AIDS.

Highly-active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is used to slow progression of HIV (which is a retrovirus). Treatment with HAART may allow some patients to safely receive anticancer drugs in standard or higher doses. Medicine to prevent and treat infections, which can be serious, is also used.

AIDS-related lymphoma usually grows faster than lymphoma that is not AIDS-related and it is more likely to spread to other parts of the body. In general, AIDS-related lymphoma is harder to treat.

For more information about AIDS and its treatment, please see the AIDSinfo Web site.

Three types of standard treatment are used:

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the spinal column (intrathecal chemotherapy), an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). Combination chemotherapy is treatment using more than one anticancer drug. The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.

Intrathecal chemotherapy may be used in patients who are more likely to have lymphoma in the central nervous system (CNS).

Intrathecal chemotherapy. Anticancer drugs are injected into the intrathecal space, which is the space that holds the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). There are two different ways to do this. One way, shown in the top part of the figure, is to inject the drugs into an Ommaya reservoir (a dome-shaped container that is placed under the scalp during surgery; it holds the drugs as they flow through a small tube into the brain). The other way, shown in the bottom part of the figure, is to inject the drugs directly into the CSF in the lower part of the spinal column, after a small area on the lower back is numbed.

Colony-stimulating factors are sometimes given together with chemotherapy. This helps lessen the side effects chemotherapy may have on the bone marrow.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are two types of radiation therapy. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer. The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.

High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant

High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a method of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood-forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the chemotherapy is completed, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.

New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.

This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

Monoclonal antibody therapy

Monoclonal antibody therapy is a cancer treatment that uses antibodies made in the laboratory from a single type of immune system cell. These antibodies can identify substances on cancer cells or normal substances that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies attach to the substances and kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. These may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells.

Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.

For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.

Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.

Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.

Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.

Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's clinical trials database.

Follow-up tests may be needed.

Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests. This is sometimes called re-staging.

Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
Treatment Options for AIDS-Related Lymphoma

A link to a list of current clinical trials is included for each treatment section. For some types or stages of cancer, there may not be any trials listed. Check with your doctor for clinical trials that are not listed here but may be right for you.

AIDS-Related Peripheral/Systemic Lymphoma

There is no standard treatment plan for AIDS-related peripheral/systemic lymphoma. Treatment is adjusted for each patient and is usually one or more of the following:

* Combination chemotherapy.
* High-dose chemotherapy and stem cell transplant.
* A clinical trial of monoclonal antibodies.
* A clinical trial of different treatment combinations.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with AIDS-related peripheral/systemic lymphoma. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

AIDS-Related Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma

Treatment of AIDS-relatedprimary central nervous system lymphoma is usually radiation therapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with AIDS-related primary CNS lymphoma. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.
To Learn More About AIDS-Related Lymphoma

For more information from the National Cancer Institute about AIDS-related lymphoma, see the following.

* AIDS-Related Cancers Home Page
* Understanding Cancer Series: Blood Stem Cell Transplants
* Bone Marrow Transplantation and Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Transplantation: Questions and Answers

For general cancer information and other resources from the National Cancer Institute, see the following:

* What You Need to Know About™ Cancer - An Overview
* Understanding Cancer Series: Cancer
* Staging: Questions and Answers
* Chemotherapy and You: Support for People With Cancer
* Radiation Therapy and You: Support for People With Cancer
* Coping with Cancer
* Support and Resources
* Cancer Library
* Information For Survivors/Caregivers/Advocates

Get More Information From NCI

ancer spreads in the body

There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.

The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are:

* Through tissue. Cancer invades the surrounding normal tissue.
* Through the lymph system. Cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body.
* Through the blood. Cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body.

When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form. This process is called metastasis. The secondary (metastatic) tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer.

Stages of AIDS-related lymphoma may include E and S.

AIDS-related lymphoma may be described as follows:

* E: "E" stands for extranodal and means the cancer is found in an area or organ other than the lymph nodes or has spread to tissues beyond, but near, the major lymphatic areas.
* S: "S" stands for spleen and means the cancer is found in the spleen.

The following stages are used for AIDS-related lymphoma:

Stage I

Stage I AIDS-related lymphoma is divided into stage I and stage IE.

* Stage I: Cancer is found in one lymph node group.
* Stage IE: Cancer is found in an area or organ other than the lymph nodes.

Stage II

Stage II AIDS-related lymphoma is divided into stage II and stage IIE.

* Stage II: Cancer is found in two or more lymph node groups on the same side of the diaphragm (the thin muscle below the lungs that helps breathing and separates the chest from the abdomen).
* Stage IIE: Cancer is found in an area or organ other than the lymph nodes and in lymph nodes near that area or organ, and may have spread to other lymph node groups on the same side of the diaphragm.

Stage III

Stage III AIDS-related lymphoma is divided into stage III, stage IIIE, stage IIIS, and stage IIIS+E.

* Stage III: Cancer is found in lymph node groups on both sides of the diaphragm (the thin muscle below the lungs that helps breathing and separates the chest from the abdomen).
* Stage IIIE: Cancer is found in lymph node groups on both sides of the diaphragm and in an area or organ other than the lymph nodes.
* Stage IIIS: Cancer is found in lymph node groups on both sides of the diaphragm and in the spleen.
* Stage IIIS+E: Cancer is found in lymph node groups on both sides of the diaphragm, in an area or organ other than the lymph nodes, and in the spleen.

Certain factors affect prognosis

(chance of recovery) and treatment options.

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

* The stage of the cancer.
* The number of CD4 lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) in the blood.
* Whether the patient has ever had AIDS-related infections.
* The patient's ability to carry out regular daily activities.

Stages of AIDS-Related Lymphoma

After AIDS-related lymphoma has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body.

The process used to find out if cancercells have spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment, but AIDS-relatedlymphoma is usually advanced when it is diagnosed. The following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process:

* CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
* PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignanttumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactiveglucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
* MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. A substance called gadolinium is injected into the patient through a vein. The gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
* Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of bone marrow, blood, and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views the bone marrow, blood, and bone under a microscope to look for abnormal cells.
* Lumbar puncture: A procedure used to collect cerebrospinal fluid from the spinal column. This is done by placing a needle into the spinal column. This procedure is also called an LP or spinal tap.

* Lumbar puncture. A patient lies in a curled position on a table. After a small area on the lower back is numbed, a spinal needle (a long, thin needle) is inserted into the lower part of the spinal column to remove cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). The fluid may be sent to a laboratory for testing.
* Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it. The blood sample will be checked for the level of LDH (lactate dehydrogenase).

Possible signs of AIDS-related

ymphoma include weight loss, fever, and night sweats.

These and other symptoms may be caused by AIDS-related lymphoma. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:

* Weight loss or fever for no known reason.
* Night sweats.
* Painless, swollen lymph nodes in the neck, chest, underarm, or groin.
* A feeling of fullness below the ribs.

Tests that examine the body and lymph system are used to help detect (find) and diagnose AIDS-related lymphoma.

The following tests and procedures may be used:

* Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
* Complete blood count (CBC): A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
o The number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
o The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
o The portion of the sample made up of red blood cells.

# Complete blood count (CBC). Blood is collected by inserting a needle into a vein and allowing the blood to flow into a tube. The blood sample is sent to the laboratory and the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are counted. The CBC is used to test for, diagnose, and monitor many different conditions.
# Lymph node biopsy: The removal of all or part of a lymph node. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. One of the following types of biopsies may be done:

* Excisional biopsy: The removal of an entire lymph node.
* Incisional biopsy: The removal of part of a lymph node.
* Core biopsy: The removal of tissue from a lymph node using a wide needle.
* Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy: The removal of tissue from a lymph node using a thin needle.

# Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of bone marrow, blood, and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views the bone marrow, blood, and bone under a microscope to look for abnormal cells.

* Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. After a small area of skin is numbed, a Jamshidi needle (a long, hollow needle) is inserted into the patient’s hip bone. Samples of blood, bone, and bone marrow are removed for examination under a microscope.
* HIV test: A test to measure the level of HIV antibodies in a sample of blood. Antibodies are made by the body when it is invaded by a foreign substance. A high level of HIV antibodies may mean the body has been infected with HIV.
* Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) test: A test to measure the level of EBV antibodies in a sample of blood, tissue, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Antibodies are made by the body when it is invaded by a foreign substance. A high level of EBV antibodies may mean the body has been infected with EBV.
* Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.

Patient Information [NCI PDQ]

Anatomy of the lymph system, showing the lymph vessels and lymph organs including lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. Lymph (clear fluid) and lymphocytes travel through the lymph vessels and into the lymph nodes where the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances. The lymph enters the blood through a large vein near the heart.

There are many different types of lymphoma.

Lymphomas are divided into two general types: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Both Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma may occur in AIDS patients, but non-Hodgkin lymphoma is more common. When a person with AIDS has non-Hodgkin lymphoma, it is called an AIDS-related lymphoma.

For more information, see the following PDQ summaries:

* Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
* Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
* Primary CNS Lymphoma Treatment

AIDS-related lymphomas grow and spread quickly.

Non-Hodgkin lymphomas are grouped by the way their cells look under a microscope. They may be indolent (slow-growing) or aggressive (fast-growing). AIDS-related lymphoma is usually aggressive. There are three main types of AIDS-related lymphoma:

* Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.
* B-cellimmunoblastic lymphoma.
* Small non-cleaved cell lymphoma.

AIDS-related lymphoma

General Information About AIDS-Related Lymphoma

AIDS-related lymphoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lymph system of patients who have acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks and weakens the body's immune system. The immune system is then unable to fight infection and diseases that invade the body. People with HIV disease have an increased risk of developing infections, lymphoma, and other types of cancer. A person with HIV disease who develops certain types of infections or cancer is then diagnosed with AIDS. Sometimes, people are diagnosed with AIDS and AIDS-related lymphoma at the same time. For information about AIDS and its treatment, please see the AIDSinfo Web site.

Lymphomas are cancers that affect the white blood cells of the lymph system, part of the body's immune system. The lymph system is made up of the following:

* Lymph: Colorless, watery fluid that travels through the lymph system and carries white bloodcells called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes protect the body against infections and the growth of tumors.
* Lymph vessels: A network of thin tubes that collect lymph from different parts of the body and return it to the bloodstream.
* Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and store white blood cells that help fight infection and disease. Lymph nodes are located along the network of lymph vessels found throughout the body. Clusters of lymph nodes are found in the underarm, pelvis, neck, abdomen, and groin.
* Spleen: An organ that makes lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. The spleen is on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach.
* Thymus: An organ in which lymphocytes grow and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone.
* Tonsils: Two small masses of lymph tissue at the back of the throat. The tonsils make lymphocytes.
* Bone marrow: The soft, spongy tissue in the center of large bones. Bone marrow makes white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.

Zimbabwe's prisons are death-traps

Zimbabwe's prisoners are suffering untold horrors in Zimbabwe's jails. The State is locking them up in hell-holes, condemning them to slow starvation and possible death from nutrition-related illnesses or the vast array of other diseases they are exposed to through unhygienic conditions. Despite terrible desperation, their position as 'prisoners' means they are denied the most basic human instinct and that is to fight for survival: inmates can't beg for food from passers-by, they can't forage for wild berries in the bush, and they can't rummage through dustbins for waste food. Because of this, Zimbabwe's prisons constitute a unique and especially cruel form of torture that has both physical and psychological impacts on the people affected.

In October last year, the Zimbabwe Association for Crime Prevention and Rehabilitation of the Offender (ZACRO) released a report noting that there are 55 prisons in Zimbabwe (including satellites), with the capacity to hold 17 000 inmates. But in October 2008 it was estimated that more than 35 000 people were in jail.

Shingles (cont.)

What is the treatment for shingles? Should I visit my health-care professional?
There are several effective treatments for shingles. Drugs that fight viruses (antivirals), such as acyclovir (Zovirax), valacyclovir (Valtrex), or famciclovir (Famvir), can reduce the severity and duration of the rash if started early (within 72 hours of the appearance of the rash). In addition to antiviral medication, pain medications may be needed for symptom control.

The affected area should be kept clean. Bathing is permitted, and the area can be cleansed with soap and water. Cool compresses and anti-itching lotions, such as calamine lotion, may also provide relief. An aluminum acetate solution (Burow's or Domeboro solution, available at your pharmacy) can be used to help dry up the blisters and oozing.

What are the complications of shingles?

Generally, shingles heal well and problems are few. However, on occasion, the blisters can become infected with bacteria, causing cellulitis, a bacterial infection of the skin. If this occurs, the area will become reddened, warm, firm, and tender. You might notice red streaks forming around the wound. If you notice any of these symptoms, contact your health-care professional. Antibiotics can be used to treat these complications.

A more worrisome complication occurs when shingles affect the face, specifically the forehead and nose. In this situation, it is possible, although not likely, that shingles can affect the eye, leading to loss of vision. If you have shingles on your forehead or nose, your eyes should be evaluated by a health-care professional.
How the Varicella zoster virus causes shingles and postherpetic neuralgia

NEW'S & HIV/AIDS

25 June 2009 | FXB Featured in the "International Herald Tribune"
11 June 2009 | FXB Founder Awarded BNP Philanthropy Prize
20 May 2009 | FXB featured in Forbes Magazine
8 Apr 2009 | French President Nicolas Sarkozy presents FXB Founder with the Insignia of Officer in "l'Ordre National du Mérite".
13 Mar 2009 | FXB India Releases Book, Hopes Alive: Surviving AIDS and Despair
01 Mar 2009 | Update from Myanmar: Coping after the Cyclone
12 Feb 2009 | The Joint Learning Initiative on Children and HIV/AIDS (JLICA) Releases Final Report
12 Feb 2009 | Albina du Boisrouvray Speech at the Launch of the JLICA Report in London
01 Jan 2009 | 2009 Marks FXB's 20th Anniversary
4 Dec 2008 | Call for Nominations for Jonathan Mann Award
1 Dec 2008 | FXB Awarded $3.3 million grant from US Government
15 Oct 2008 | FXB India Celebrates Global Handwashing Day with Awareness Activities
25 Sept 2008 | Protravel Sponsors an FXB-Village in Rwanda
06 Aug 2008 | UNAIDS Reports Significant Gains in HIV Prevention
25 Jul 2008 | FXB and Founder Albina du Boisrouvray highlighted for work in Myanmar
25 Jul 2008 | FXB Founder Albina du Boisrouvray featured in TV program about Giving
27 May 2008 | FXB Cited by UN and WHO for Coordinating HIV Support in Myanmar
07 May 2008 | Congresswoman Lee (D-CA) speaks out for AIDS Orphans
14 Apr 2008 | FXB-Villages Highlighted in Newsletter of Food & Agriculture Organization of United Nations
21 Feb 2008 | The Canton of the Valais, Switzerland, has agreed to subsidize the renown FXB Palliative Home Care Center (CFXB)

Micronutrients & HIV/AIDS

Vitamin A’s anti-oxidant effects and zinc’s direct role in decreasing T-cell lymphocytes are both important in fighting the HIV infection. Research studies have shown that when zinc supplements are given to individuals, the number of T-cell lymphocytes circulating in the blood increases and the ability of lymphocytes to fight infection improves. Zinc supplements have shown to slow the progression of HIV disease, and decrease opportunistic infections.

In children with HIV disease, micronutrient deficiencies are even more detrimental because children’s micronutrient stores are divided between normal growth and development and a constantly challenged immune system that is trying to suppress the virus. Growth and development are compromised by an increased need for nutrients to fight infection.
Antiretroviral Therapy and HIV/AIDS

The HIV disease process itself contributes to the depletion of nutrients through altered metabolism, increased energy demands, malabsorption, impaired nutrient storage, anorexia, and chronic diarrhea. Furthermore, antiretroviral (ARV) drug therapy to treat AIDS has greatly alleviated death rates and opportunistic infections. However, ARV may further exacerbate micronutrient deficiencies through side effects of vomiting and diarrhea. Increased adverse effects of ARV therapy occur especially when HIV patients also suffer from malnutrition or anemia, or when they use antituberculosis therapy. One of the common drugs, zidovudine (AZT), used to treat AIDS is known to make anemia significantly worse during the first three months of therapy. Anemia is also a common side effect of HIV and can lead to a faster HIV disease progression and death.

Row over 'Aids' death certificate

A South African doctor should face a charge of unprofessional conduct for naming Aids on a death certificate against family wishes, officials say.

A complaint was filed with the national health watchdog against Dr Leon Wagner after the woman died in April 2005.

Dr Wagner has not yet entered a plea, saying it is unclear what rule he has broken. The hearing has been adjourned.

A BBC correspondent says the stigma attached to Aids means doctors do not commonly list it as the cause of death.

Deaths are attributed on death certificates to related diseases, such as tuberculosis or pneumonia, rather than Aids, the BBC's Peter Biles in Johannesburg says.

The charge of unprofessional conduct has sparked debate in South Africa about the extent to which Aids-related deaths are covered up, he says.

South Africa, where 5.5 million people are living with HIV, is one of several countries where the HIV epidemic is continuing to worsen, according to a UNAids report released this week.

'Watershed' case
Proceedings against Dr Wagner were triggered by a complaint by the family of a 30-year-old woman to the national health watchdog.

After a disciplinary hearing in Bloemfontein, the South African Heath Professions Council said Dr Wagner should face a charge of "unprofessional conduct".
The case has been adjourned, probably until early next year.

The labour union to which Dr Wagner belongs, Solidarity, has said the case could be "a watershed for South Africa".

"If he is exonerated and it is found that doctors may in future indicate Aids as the real cause of death on certificates, it would have tremendous consequences for the statistical documentation of this pandemic," a Solidarity spokesman said.

The opposition Democratic Alliance has argued that current policies that protect the confidentiality of Aids patients at all costs may not be helping the national Aids awareness campaign.

The government approach to the HIV epidemic in South Africa has been controversial. Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang has promoted the use of natural remedies - such as telling people with HIV to eat garlic and beetroot - rather than the anti-retroviral drugs used in the West.

More than 60 international experts on HIV/Aids called for her resignation in September, saying people were "dying unnecessarily" because they were being denied Aids drugs.

The United Nations special envoy for Aids in Africa has also criticised the South African government for its "negligent" attitude to rolling out treatment.

However, hundreds of traditional healers demonstrated in support of Dr Tshabalala-Msimang on Thursday, carrying placards warning of the dangers of anti-retrovirals.